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Mapping the industry and supply chain for farmed fish in Europe

Updated: 5 hours ago


Production, trade, and certification


Authors: Max Carpendale, George Bridgwater

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Executive summary

Several organisations, including Rethink Priorities, Welfare Footprint, Animal Ask, and others, are conducting a year-long project to guide the strategy of the fish welfare movement for the coming decades.


As part of this project, Animal Ask conducted mapping of the industry and supply chain for fish production in European aquaculture.


In this report, we present key results from this industry and supply chain mapping. The goal of this report is to provide fish welfare advocates with an easy-to-understand guide to the aquaculture industry and supply chain in Europe. 


Specifically, we examine the following sources of information:

  • Production. Numbers of fish farmed across Europe, as well as common on-farm practices, can help inform which countries are the highest priorities for fish welfare advocacy. We provide country profiles for 16 fish-producing countries/territories in Europe.

  • Trade. Import and export information can help identify points of leverage across national borders. For example, pressure on retailers in a trout-importing country might be more effective in some cases than pressure in the trout-producing country.

  • Certification. Information on rates of certification (e.g. Aquaculture Stewardship Council) can help identify which areas of production might be higher priority for campaigns and how to best run those campaigns.


Table of contents


1. Species descriptions and production methods

This section presents the numbers of fish farmed in each country, by species and production method, as well as describing the prevalence of different slaughter methods.


Number of farmed fish (millions) slaughtered by country and species 2022

Full sheet on consumption here.


Geographic distribution of the production of each species

The following maps show the production of each species, in terms of individuals slaughtered, across countries in Europe. Note that the colour scale of each map is different, so please pay attention to the labels on the colour scale along the bottom.









The following table presents available data points on which stunning methods are used in specific European countries and/or the European Union as a whole. The data is sparse and may be unreliable, but can give a general idea of stunning practices across Europe. In particular, it shows a wide variation in stunning practices.


Slaughter methods, prevalence by species and country

UK: (1,2) 

Türkiye: 90% of farmers surveyed in Türkiye own an electrical stunner; however, only 40% of companies use it for over 95% slaughter (3).

Greece: We could not find specific numbers, however we found an (unsourced) claim that “the adoption of humane slaughter methods like electrical stunning remains limited” in Greece (4). However, the largest producers in Greece, Avramar and Philosofish are increasingly investing in stunning equipment, with Avramar pledging 50% of its production to be stunned before slaughter by 2027 (3). 

Denmark: (5)

Spain: (6)

EU: (2,5,7) 

Italy: A survey of 21 farms found that none of them stunned fish before slaughter (3).

Norway: Live chilling with CO2 is still used “to a limited extent” as of 2017 but it is being phased out (8,9) 


2. Production and supply chain description

This section summarises the industry profile of farms, grocery retailers, target markets, as well as other relevant aspects of the industry, such as processors and distributors. We consider these for the top producing countries in Europe, as well as the top consuming countries. For the data backing up many of the claims in this section, as well as a more fine-grained analysis, please refer to our spreadsheet mapping production in top producing countries and our spreadsheet mapping grocery retailers fish procurement policies in top consuming countries [1].


While we endeavoured to examine the majority of fish production, this is a large and complicated industry. As such, we did not aim to cover every aspect of production. For data on producers, we often stopped searching for producers once we had 80% of annual production accounted for; beyond this point, production tends to be dominated by small farms with sparse data. However, in some cases like Iceland and the Faroe Islands, we were able to map all of the producers in the countries. This is due to very concentrated industries and high-quality data in these countries. In other cases, such as Poland, we were only able to find production data on around 6% of total production. This is due to a more dispersed and informal industry.


We pay special attention to whether the industry in a given country is concentrated or not, which has implications for campaign strategy (e.g. it might be easier for larger farms to invest in higher-welfare equipment, or a more competitive supermarket sector might be more interested in making welfare commitments). We noticed a pattern of larger farms being more likely to have signed up with certification programs (perhaps because of fixed costs associated with signing up for certification). Similar logic applies to supermarkets, slaughterhouses, distributors, and so on.


For grocery retailers, we analysed the top 5–10 grocery retailers. We analysed a lower number if dominant market share was reached with a smaller number of grocery retailers or if marginal grocery retailers had only small market shares. We analysed retailers' fish procurement policies, including whether the retailer purchases a minimum percentage of certified fish for aquaculture and/or wild-caught fish and whether this applies to their own branded products or all products sold by the retailer. We also looked at whether retailers have cage-free welfare commitments for hens or the European Chicken Commitment for broiler chickens. These animal welfare commitments in other species might indicate receptiveness to additional animal welfare commitments, though it is also important to be aware that ongoing hen or broiler welfare campaigns may clash with fish welfare campaigns.


2.1. Türkiye

Farm profile

Türkiye produces very large quantities of sea bass, sea bream, and rainbow trout (95% of production), with smaller amounts of other species including tuna (5% of production) (10). Türkiye has an average production per farm of 1,040 tonnes across all species, which represents a larger average farm size than any other Mediterranean country except for Spain (3).


Sea bass and sea bream is produced mostly in sea cages in Türkiye, but also in smaller scale earth pond farms (3). Trout is mainly produced in small concrete raceways fed by stream water. While there are some large and medium-size producers, most Turkish trout is produced by smaller, family-run farms, with a large majority producing less than 50 tonnes (10). Over 50% of producers have their own hatcheries (10).


Additionally, so-called “Turkish salmon” is also raised in significant quantities in Türkiye. Turkish salmon is marketed as a substitute for salmon, though it is in fact rainbow trout that is raised in freshwater before being transferred to cages in the Black Sea for grow out (11). 


Certification is quite common, especially among larger producers. By production volume, an estimated 89% of sea bass and sea bream is covered by Global G.A.P and 50% by ASC (Aquatic Stewardship Council). There are some notable exceptions. Kılıç, the largest producer and one that accounts for 18.6% of total Turkish bass and bream production, so 100% Global G.A.P. certified but only 12% ASC certified.


There are 15 fish feed manufacturers producing over 40,000 tonnes throughout Turkiye (10). The fish processing industry is also quite well developed, with 439 companies producing € 1bn in annual revenues, the 12th largest in Europe overall (12).


Retailer profile

The grocery retailer market in Türkiye is fragmented, with the top 10 grocery retailers only accounting for approximately 40% of total market share. There are approximately 90,000 small shops called bakkals that collectively account for a significant fraction of the total market share in Türkiye (13).


In contrast with domestic production, the domestic retail market has very little mention of certification or animal welfare, and retailers rarely have any policy of stocking only certified fish. Per capita fish consumption in Türkiye is also very low and aquaculture fish are mostly exported to other European countries.


Target market

Trout (Including Turkish salmon) are mainly consumed locally, but 75% of sea bass and sea bream are exported to EU countries (10). 


2.2. Norway

Farm profile

Norway produces primarily salmon with smaller amounts of trout. 91% of salmon produced in Norway are covered by Global G.A.P certification. ASC certification is very common as well, with 65% coverage. Norwegian salmon is marketed as a premium product and the larger and medium-sized producers often release sustainability reports with animal welfare sections and/or other sections that have implications for animal welfare.


Norwegian aquaculture production is relatively top-heavy, with the top 10 companies being responsible for the majority of production. The company Mowi is particularly notable as producing more than one quarter of Norway’s total production. However, because of the size of the industry, there are also many small and medium-size companies that make up the rest of production. Norwegian companies also often have operations in other countries including Canada, Chile, and Iceland.


Cleaner fish are often used in Norwegian aquaculture, with a total of 34 million cleaner fish used in 2023 (14). However, many companies now have policies restricting cleaner fish use;  the number of cleaner fish used decreased from 60 million in 2019 to 31 million in 2022 (15). Norway imports large quantities of fish meal and fish oil from the EU and South America (16). 


Retailer profile

The retail market in Norway is very concentrated with NorgesGruppen, Reitangruppen, Coop Norge, and Bunnpris being responsible for almost all sales within the country. However, many of these companies (especially NorgesGruppen) operate multiple chains of stores within the country.


In contrast to producers in Norway, retailers in Norway typically do not have a focus on certification, and few Norwegian retailers have any specific policy on seafood certification. This is quite surprising given the widespread coverage of domestic production and relatively higher income of consumers.


Target market

Fish consumption in Norway is high at 53.1 kg per person per year, but the small population of 5.5 million people means that domestic consumption is still small and most of production is exported (17). As with other salmon, Norwegian salmon is a relatively premium product.


2.3. Greece

Farm profile

Greece produces the largest number of fish in aquaculture of any EU country. Almost all of Greece's production is sea bass and sea bream (18). Greek farms use sea cages and maintain stocking densities of 10 - 15 kg fish m3 (18).


Greek aquaculture production is characterized by some large-scale producers, especially Avramar, producing more than half of total aquaculture production. After accounting for this handful of large-scale producers, there are a number of small-scale farms to make up the country's total 283 farms. Greek aquaculture production has recently plateaued (18). Certification rates are very low among producers at just 22% of production covered by ASC and 70% covered by Global G.A.P. 


Retailer profile

Greece's grocery retailers make little mention of certification schemes, suggesting that certification is used by producers mainly to access foreign markets. The little attention to production methods mirrors that in other farmed animals; for example, Greek retailers have a far lower rate of certification for eggs (cage-free) or chicken meat (European Chicken Commitment). Another issue for data collection is that 25% of producer sales of fish in Greece are direct to consumers (19). Direct-to-consumer sales make retailers a less significant player in the market, although this may expose producers directly to consumer pressure.


Target market

92% of sea bass and sea bream produced in Greece is exported, with Italy (41%), Spain (21%), and France (11%) being the largest markets. 5% goes to non-EU countries and the remaining 14% goes to various other EU countries (20). Greek sea bass and sea bream is typically marketed as premium relative to sea bass and sea bream from other countries (21). 65% of export volumes go to the EU, with the US followed by China as the next largest export destinations.


2.4. United Kingdom

Farm profile

Aquaculture production in the United Kingdom is dominated by salmonid farms in Scotland. 95% of production occurs in sea or brackish water and 85% of production occurs in cages (22). 73% of production comes from Mowi Scotland, Cooke Aquaculture, Scottish Sea Farms and Bakkafrost.


90% of production from farms is covered by the Code of Good Practice, which is an industry-created code. 70% of production is also covered by the RSPCA Assured scheme (1). On paper, this scheme is strong in fish welfare when compared to other seafood certification schemes. 53% of production is covered by ASC. Global G.A.P certification is also very common at an estimated 94% coverage. Most of the production of the largest producer, Mowi, as well as another large producer Bakkafrost, are also ASC-certified, but most other farms are not. 


15 million cleaner fish are used per year in the Scottish salmon farming industry. Mortality figures for them are not reported but “they are suggested to be extremely high (up to 100%), and the fish who survive are killed at the end of the salmon production cycle” (23). For more information on this specific issue in the UK, see this report. 


Retailer profile

The grocery retail market in the UK is very concentrated, with the top 10 grocery retailers having a collective market share of 96.8%. There is unanimous mention of the major seafood certification schemes amongst these top retailers, and over half of these retailers aim to secure 100% of seafood (whether own-brand or total coverage) by these schemes. Many retailers even mention fish stunning specifically. Seafood certification and fish stunning policy coverage are more common in the retail sector than broiler chicken welfare commitments (European Chicken Commitment).


Target market

France dominates the export market, followed by the U.S., China, and Taiwan (24). Scottish salmon is marketed as a premium product, even relative to other salmon products (25).


2.5. Denmark

Farm profile

Danish production is predominantly rainbow trout, with smaller amounts of eels and recirculating aquaculture and turbot also farmed (26). Danish trout production takes place in recirculating aquaculture systems (38% of production), freshwater ponds (36%), and sea cages (26%) (27).


Retailer profile

Denmark has a concentrated retail market, with the top retailers being Coop (38% market share), Dansk Supermarked (32%), Dagrofa (16%), and Reitan (9%) (27). With the exception of Dagrofa, these Danish supermarkets all have animal welfare policies or targets for a minimum percentage of seafood product certification. This makes Denmark stronger on fish product certification than many other European countries.


Target market

90% of Danish production is exported, with the biggest importing destinations Germany, followed by Poland, Finland, and Vietnam (26,27). 


2.6. Spain

Farm profile

Spanish aquaculture produces the largest quantities of sea bass and sea bream, trout, and bluefin tuna among countries that we have considered, but the industry also produces significant quantities of various other species. The Spanish aquaculture industry is quite concentrated with mostly large farms, represented by an average production per farm of 1,300 tonnes (3). Spanish bass and bream production is widely covered by Global G.A.P with an estimated 89% covered by the scheme. However ASC certification only covers 4% of production volume, and this is mostly through the small fraction of AVRAMAR production that is certified in the country. Trout on the other hand, has no ASC coverage and only 32% coverage from Global G.A.P. 


Retailer profile

Spanish grocery retail is less concentrated than in other European countries, with the top 10 retailers covering just 64% of total grocery retail revenue. Seven of these top 10 mention certification in their CSR, sustainability or company reports; however, none of these retailers require certification or any welfare standards for the fish sold in their stores. This stands in contrast to their progress on hen welfare and broiler chicken welfare; all 10 retailers have pledged to be completely cage-free by 2025, and 5 have ECC commitments for 2026.


Target market

Most of Spain’s production is consumed domestically. Spain also imports large amounts of sea bass and sea bream from Greece (24%) and Türkiye (6%) (3). Spain imports salmonids mostly from Sweden (45%) which appear to be re-exports originally produced in Norway (28). Exports of Spanish production are mostly to Portugal (59%), France (12%) and Italy (9%).


2.7. Croatia

Farm profile

Croatia produces mostly sea bass and sea bream, at 75% of total production. Notably, 14% by volume of Croatian aquaculture production is Atlantic bluefin tuna (29). Croatia also has some freshwater farming of trout and carp (30). 


Croatian aquaculture production is dominated by the company Cromaris, responsible for over half of the country's production. Otherwise, most farms are medium or small, producing under 2,000 tonnes per year. As the large companies are certified, Croatian production is estimated to be 93% certified by ASC and 82% by Global G.A.P. 


Croatia has 48 fish processing enterprises employing a total of 1,356 staff (29).


Retailer profile

Croatia was not covered in our retailer research due to its lower total domestic consumption.


Target market

Sea bass and sea bream production is mostly exported within the EU with Italy (31%), Spain (11%), and Slovenia (8%) being the main importing countries (29). Bluefin tuna is mainly exported, particularly to Japan. Because of the high price of bluefin tuna, this also represents the majority of aquaculture by value (30).


2.8. Italy

Farm profile

Italy farms mostly freshwater species, but with some significant production of sea bass and sea bream in sea cages as well. The average production per farm in Italy is 350 tonnes (20). 


Certification rates for sea bass and sea bream are low, with only 14.8% of production volume covered by Global. G.A.P, and ASC coverage is low. In contrast, the major trout producers have higher certification rates at around 50% of production volume for both schemes. Given the fragmented nature of the industry, we only covered 29% of the market with our estimate, meaning that the true coverage of certification of Italian finfish aquaculture could be as low as around 15% for the market as a whole. Since large farms are more likely to be part of a scheme, this seems like a more realistic estimate for trout production in Italy.


Italy also has a significant fish processing sector with 438 companies employing 5,936 people (31).


Retailer profile

The grocery retailer market in Italy is somewhat concentrated, with the top 10 supermarkets collectively accounting for 59% of sector revenue. Policies on fish certification are rare among these grocery retailers with only three retailers (two of which were international brands with a small presence in Italy) mentioning the schemes. 


Target market

Italy is one of the largest markets in the EU for fish products, and heavily a net importer of fish products (31). The majority of the volume comes from Swedish salmonids (30%) and Greek (21%) and Turkish (10%) bass and bream (32). 84% of fish in Italy is consumed fresh, far higher than the EU average of 20% (31). 


2.9. France

Farm profile

France predominantly produces trout. Of the country's 500 trout farms, only 3% of farms produce more than 500 tonnes; the average production across all of France's trout farms is below 200 tonnes (33). Many of these producers are concentrated in cooperatives such as Aqualande, which claims Global G.A.P certification for its breeding sites (34) but does not appear on the G.A.P farm list as currently holding certification (35). 


France also has a smaller industry of sea bass and sea bream (33). Overall, it seems certification coverage is very low for both trout and bass/bream, with seemingly no meaningful coverage by either ASC or G.A.P. 


Retailer profile

The French grocery retail market is concentrated, with the top 8 grocery retailers in France having a collective market share of above 95%. Supermarkets are relatively split as to whether they have policies of only procuring certified fish. A few smaller retailers have  policies requiring certification on all seafood products, and the remaining retailers (except for Auchan) either mention a preference for certified products or advertise their sale of at least some certified products. In contrast, most retailers have made hen welfare commitments (cage-free) and many have made broiler welfare commitments (European Chicken Commitment), with most of those commitments having deadlines in 2026.


2.10. Germany

Farm profile

The German aquaculture industry is small in terms of total production and in the size of the individual farms. There are 12,300 companies producing some fish “part time” and 732 companies producing exclusively fish (36). 91% of production comes from the 20% of farms producing more than 5 tonnes per year (37). In contrast, 56% of German aquaculture farms produce less than 1 tonne per year.


The nature of the industry means it is very difficult to get an understanding of coverage, so our estimates are tentative. We only found one major farm which was ASC-certified (Heidefisch farm), and this company has 8% market share for trout. However, given smaller farms are much more sparsely certified, this 8% figure might account for most or all of the country's certified trout production. 


The most productive and profitable sector of the German aquaculture industry is the production of trout in flow-through systems, producing a total of around 8,000 t. The rest of the German aquaculture industry uses mainly earthen ponds for the production of Carp (around 4,000 t). The harsh conditions and shallow waters of Germany’s North Sea coast prevent the development of significant marine aquaculture (36).


Retailer profile

Grocery retail is concentrated, with the top four companies accounting for just under 90% of revenue in the sector. Public commitments to sell only certified fish products are uncommon, 6/10 of the top grocery retailers having policies or commitments to have all private labelled products as certified whereas only three have blanket requirements for all farmed products. Notably though there has been strong retailer interest in these schemes and we are aware of more non-public intentions to push towards certification from discussions with advocates within the movement. 


Target market

While fish consumption per capita is lower in Germany (12.66 kg/person) than other populous European countries, the large population of Germany means that the total amount of fish consumption there is very large. Imports help to meet this demand.


65% of production is sold to wholesalers and 10% is sold directly to consumers (37). 


2.11. Portugal

Farm profile

Although not yet a significant fraction of total EU production, Portugal has been rapidly increasing its sea bass and bream production since 2018 (38). This may be driven by a $30 million investment from Sonae group to produce farmed sea bass and sea bream in the south of the country (39). This means even though total aquaculture production has varied over this period, the greater share of bass and bream is pushing the total number of individuals slaughtered in the country higher. 


Domestic production seems relatively fragmented, with a few major producers and negligible presence of the major welfare certification bodies in the country. 


Retailer profiler

Grocery retailers are somewhat concentrated, with 6 companies accounting for 68% of total revenue. However, retailers have made little progress on animal welfare; this is unfortunate, given Portugal's very high per capita consumption of fish (59.41 kg/person) (40). The majority of retailers fail to mention any kind of certification for farmed or wild fish, and none of them have any procurement policies for certification or stunning. On other animal welfare issues, Portugal also lags behind the rest of Europe; only half of Portugal's retailers have some kind of cage-free egg policy or commitment, and there is no progress on the European Chicken Commitment in the country.


Target market

Portugal's consumption of fish products greatly outstrips domestic production, making the country very reliant on imports. The majority of these imports come from Spain for bass/bream (26%) and salmonids (20%) (38), though some of these may be re-exports. 


2.12. Poland

Farm profile

Poland predominantly farms carp (60%) and rainbow trout (34%) (41). Around 46% of production occurs in ponds, 45% in raceways, 6.5% in recirculation systems and 3.5% in enclosures or pens (42). There are 1,164 aquaculture companies in Poland, with an average production of around 40 t per farm (43). We did not find any large producers in the country outside of the salmon sector. The salmon sector is dominated by Jurassic Salmon, although even this is modest at 1,000 t produced by the company per year (44).


Poland has one of the largest fish processing industries in Europe, exporting 593,000 tonnes of processed fish products per year. There are a total of 220 processing companies employing 15,500 people. Preserved and canned products are the most common products produced, with up to a 50% share (43). This may also mean that Poland acts as an intermediate stop, importing raw fish from producing countries and exporting processed products to consuming countries.


Retailer profile

90% - 95% of farmed fish in Poland are sold wholesale, with the remainder being sold by small outlets owned by the fish farms (41).


Grocery retail is quite dispersed with only 46% of the sector's revenue accounted for by the top 10 brands. Certification is somewhat common amongst these retailers, with 60% having some form of reference too or promotion of major schemes. However, none of these have blanket policies requiring any form of welfare standards or certification for wild or farmed fish. Only Żabka and Makro have certification requirements for their private label products. 


Target market

As in some other central and eastern European countries, there is a tradition in Poland of eating carp around Christmas. In Poland, 80% - 90% of carp sales occur in the Christmas period (45). Traditionally, these carps are sold live and kept in a bathtub before being killed and eaten (46).


2.13. Finland

Retailer profile

Finland has a concentrated grocery retailer market, with the top eight grocery retailer companies having a collective market share of 96.3%. The top grocery retailing group, S Group, alone has a market share of 48.3%. Only the Tokmanni Group (3.2% grocery market share) has a policy of selling only certified fish from aquaculture, meaning that the vast majority of fish consumed in Finland are sold by stores without such policies.


Note that we have not produced a farm profile or target market profile for Finland, as consumption in this country is far more significant than the low levels of production.


2.14. The Netherlands

Retailer profile

The Netherlands has a relatively concentrated grocery retailer market, with the top 8 retailers having a collective market share of 87.5%. The top grocery retailers with the highest market share all have policies of buying at least a certain percentage of fish products certified according to a particular standard, meaning that many wild caught and fish from aquaculture sold in the Netherlands are certified.


The Netherlands imports large numbers of fish from other European countries, especially salmon.


Note that we have not produced a farm profile for the Netherlands, as consumption in this country is far more significant than the low levels of production.


2.15. Faroe Islands

The Faroe Islands are an autonomous territory within the Kingdom of Denmark. Fish production is reported separately for the Faroe Islands in production and trade statistics,s o we examine the Faroe Islands here as a separate entity.


Farm profile

Aquaculture production in the Faroe Islands is extremely concentrated with the only three companies operating being Bakkafrost (66,700t annual production), Hiddenfjord (20,000t), and Mowi (7,864t). Production is exclusively salmon.


Certification is very common among these forms with all of them being Global G.A.P certified, and Bakkafrost and Mowi being ASC certified. Additionally, Hiddenfjord is BAP certified.


Note that we have not produced a retailer profile for the Faroe Islands, as production in this territory is far more significant than the low levels of consumption.


2.16. Iceland

Farm profile

Aquaculture in Iceland is highly concentrated, with 8 companies being responsible for almost all of production. Production is predominantly of salmon, with 6,800 tonnes of Arctic char also being produced. Salmon production in Iceland appears to be expanding rapidly, with most companies planning on significantly increasing the production of salmon in coming years. There is a small amount of trout production (~200 tonnes), though this has declined over recent years.


Many farms in Iceland remain uncertified. However, the first and third top producers respectively, Arnalax and Arctic Fish, both have ASC certifications. Only Stolt Sea Farm, producing relatively small amounts of farmed sole, has Global G.A.P certification. It seems that other farms are seeking certification, but may be too new to have achieved it.


Target market

Icelandic farmed fish are mainly exported to EU countries, particularly the Netherlands, Denmark, and France. The US and UK are also significant export destinations.


Note that we have not produced a retailer profile for Iceland, as production in this territory is far more significant than the low levels of consumption; despite high per capita consumption of fish, the country has a small population and this means that the total fish consumption is low.


3. Trade

This section roughly summarises the numbers of fish imported to and exported from each country's trade partners, by species and by trade partner. This enables us to see whether fish farmed in some country are actually being eaten in that same country—where fish are mostly exported (e.g. much of Denmark's trout are actually eaten in Germany), this has implications for campaign strategy. We link to the Finsight website (https://finsight.fish, an online platform created by Animal Ask) which contains more information.


Note that some countries, such as Poland, the Netherlands, Denmark, Spain, and crucially Sweden, have a significant re-exporting industry. These countries may show as exporting lots of fish, despite limited local production. This is because of significant fish processing and redistribution industries in these countries. For example, Sweden imports around a third of Norway’s salmon production for re-export into the rest of the EU. This is a known challenge with trade statistics that affects analyses across many industries (the Rotterdam-Antwerp effect).



Appendix

Data to further support this report are available at the following links:


Notes

[1] All statements that are not cited in-text in this section are drawn from our data in these spreadsheets. These spreadsheets contain citations in the respective cell or column header.


References

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